The REMHub project, funded by the Horizon EU program, continues to push the boundaries of innovation in rare earth element (REE) recycling and permanent magnet production. In this context, researchers from Politecnico di Milano are pioneering the use of binder jetting 3D printing technology to create sustainable permanent magnets from recycled materials, addressing critical supply chain vulnerabilities and environmental concerns.
Europe’s dependence on the importation of REE for the production of permanent magnets presents a significant strategic vulnerability. China currently dominates 87% of global REE refining capacity, with Europe importing over 98% of its REE from China.[1] Moreover, roughly 90% of the global NdFeB magnet production is controlled by China.[2] This dependency was highlighted by China’s recent export restrictions on REE, which caused significant disruptions across multiple sectors, particularly in automotive and renewable energy.[3]
Recycling represents a concrete solution to help Europe achieve autonomy in its supply of REE, reducing reliance on external sources and strengthening the resilience of critical value chains. Yet, the primary challenge is the extremely low recycling rate: less than 1% of REE from scrap magnets are currently recycled each year[4], even though permanent magnets contain 20–30% rare earth elements[5], far higher concentrations than natural ores, which can be as low as 1%4. This highlights that end-of-life (EoL) products, particularly Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), are a largely untapped urban mine of critical materials due to their high concentrations of rare earth elements.
Traditional magnet production methods are inherently inefficient, generating up to 70 % material waste through cutting, shaping, and finishing processes[6]. REMHub’s binder jetting approach represents a significant shift in the manufacturing of permanent magnets.
Binder jetting is an additive manufacturing process in which a liquid polymeric binder is selectively deposited onto a bed of recycled NdFeB powder, building up the desired shape layer by layer. After each layer is formed, the unbound powder is removed, leaving behind a fragile “green” part. This structure is then densified through sintering in a controlled atmosphere, where heat causes the powder particles to bond and the magnet achieves its final properties. The process is particularly well-suited for creating complex geometries with minimal material waste and makes efficient use of recycled powders.
Thus, this process could allow the manufacturing of near-net-shape magnets with complex geometries that would be impossible or extremely inefficient to produce using conventional methods. The technique allows for rapid prototyping and small/medium-batch manufacturing, while maintaining magnetic properties comparable to those of conventionally produced magnets.
Nonetheless, several challenges are currently being addressed. The morphology and size of recycled powders should be adjusted to facilitate the printing process, and thermal treatments should be optimised to maximise densification and retain geometries, even in the case of consistent shrinkage rates.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies clearly demonstrate that using binder jetting to produce recycled permanent magnets results in substantial environmental improvements compared to conventional virgin magnet manufacturing. Specifically, the carbon footprint decreases from 11.32 to just 1.51 kg CO₂-eq per kilogram for recycled magnets produced via binder jetting—a reduction of approximately 87%.
Beyond the significant decrease in carbon emissions, the environmental benefits of this approach are extensive. Recycling rare earth magnets reduces the need for mining, as each kilogram of recycled material replaces the extraction of several tons of ore. The process also consumes significantly less energy than primary extraction and refining and avoids the toxic waste issues associated with mining and processing rare earth elements.
Current research focuses on optimising powder characteristics, enhancing magnetic particle loading, and developing customised printing equipment with inert atmospheres to prevent oxidation during processing. The technology holds particular promise for applications that require complex geometries, where traditional production methods fall short.
The successful development of this technology positions Europe at the forefront of sustainable permanent magnet production, offering a viable pathway to reduce dependence on imports while advancing circular economy principles in the critical materials sector.